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الجمهورية اللبنانية La République Libanaise Al-Jumhūriyyah al-Lubnāniyyah Lebanese Republic
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: كلنا للوطن للعلى للعلم  (Arabic) "Nous sommes tous pour le pays, la sublimation et le drapeau!"  (French) "We are all for the Country, the Sublime and the Flag!"
Anthem: Kulluna lil-watan lil 'ula lil-'alam
Capital (and largest city)		Beirut 33°54′N, 35°32′E
Official languages		Arabic.[1]
Demonym		Lebanese
Government		Republic
-	President	None (Émile Lahoud's term expired 11/23/07)
-	Prime Minister	Fouad Siniora (interim)
Independence from France
-	Declared	November 26, 1941
-	Recognized	November 22, 1943
Area
-	Total	10,452 km² (166th) 4,035 sq mi
-	Water (%)	1.6
Population
-	July 2007 estimate	4,099,000 (128th)
-	Density	358/km² (26th) 948/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2006 estimate
-	Total	$21.45 billion (103rd)
-	Per capita	$6,100 (90th)
HDI (2006)		0.774 (medium) (78th)
Currency		Lebanese lira (LL) (LBP)
Time zone		EET (UTC+2)
-	Summer (DST)	EEST (UTC+3)
Internet TLD		.lb
Calling code		+961

Lebanon (IPA: /ˈlɛbənɒn/) (Arabic: لبنان Lubnān; French: Liban), officially the Republic of Lebanon^[2] or Lebanese Republic^[3] (الجمهورية اللبنانية), La République Libanaise , is a small, mostly mountainous country in the Western Asia, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon evolved a peculiar political system, known as confessionalism, based on a community-based power-sharing mechanism. ^[4]

The flag of Lebanon features a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. This is a reference to the famous cedars of Lebanon, that were mentioned in the verses of the Tanakh/Old Testament, mostly in Psalms and the Song of Songs.

Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy.^[5] It is considered the banking capital of the Arab world and was widely known as the "Switzerland of Western Asia"^[6][7] due to its financial power. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists,^[8] to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of Western Asia."^[9]

Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.^[10] By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,^[11] and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts.^[8] The 2006 war between Israel and Hezbollah brought mounting civilian and military casualties, extensive damage to civilian infrastructure, and massive population displacement from July 12, 2006 until a ceasefire went into effect on August 14, 2006.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Geography and climate 3 Governorates and districts 4 Demographics and religion 5 Economy 6 Education 6.1 Schools 6.2 Higher education 7 Language 8 Culture 8.1 Overview 8.2 Cuisine 8.3 Creative arts 8.4 Sports 8.5 Arts and literature 8.6 Festivals 9 Politics 10 History 10.1 Ancient history 10.2 French mandate and independence 10.3 1948 Arab-Israeli war 10.4 Civil war and beyond 11 Recent history 11.1 Cedar Revolution 11.1.1 Assassinations 11.1.2 Investigation and proposed UN tribunal 11.1.3 Demonstrations 11.1.4 Elections 11.2 2006 Lebanon War 12 See also 13 Footnotes 14 Book References 15 External links

A widespread explanation links the name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic; "Lebnén" in local dialect) to the Semitic root "LBN", which is linked to several closely-related meanings in various languages, such as "white" and "milk".^[12] "White" could be regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon.^[13] Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 BC), the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 BC), and 71 times in the Old Testament.^[13][14][15] The name is even recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where r stood for Semitic l.^[16]

Main article: Geography of Lebanon

Lebanon is located in Western Asia. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west along a 225 km coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for 375 kilometers (233 mi) and the Lebanon-Israel border for 79 kilometers (49 mi). The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations.^[17]

Most of Lebanon's area is mountainous terrain,^[18] except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, which plays an integral role in Lebanon's agriculture.

Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with frequent, sometimes heavy, snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry.^[19] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.^[20]

In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country's national emblem.^[21] However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests.^[21]

See also: Governorates of Lebanon and Districts of Lebanon

Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa).^[22] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:

Beirut Governorate The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut.	Nabatiyeh Governorate (Jabal Amel) - 4 districts Nabatieh Hasbaya Marjeyoun Bint Jbeil
Beqaa Governorate - 5 districts Hermel Baalbek Zahle Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi) Rashaya	North Governorate (al-Shamal) - 7 districts Akkar Tripoli Zgharta Bsharri Batroun Koura Miniyeh-Danniyeh
Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan) - 6 districts Byblos (Jbeil) Kesrwan Matn Baabda Aley Chouf	South Governorate (al-Janoub) - 3 districts Sidon (Saida) Tyre (Sur) Jezzine

Main article: Demographics of Lebanon

No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance. A 1986 estimate by the United States Central Intelligence Agency of the confessional distribution of the population showed 27 percent Sunnis, 41 percent Shias, 7 percent Druzes, 16 percent Maronites, 5 percent Greek Orthodox, and 3 percent Greek Catholics. However, these data were, at best, informed estimates subject to revision. ^[23] The 2006 CIA World Fact Book, Lebanon entry, gives the following distribution: Muslim 59.7% (Shi'a, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri), Christian 39% (Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant), other 1.3% note: 17 religious sects recognized.^[24] Lebanon has a population of Kurds. The numbers per religion vary from time to time, but mostly the Shias are nearly neck and neck with the Sunnis and the Maronites the largest amongst the Christians. According to electoral records statistics supported by recent research carried out by statistician Yousuf Al Duweihi and were published in the An-Nahar newspaper(11/12/2006), the distribution of sects in Lebanon is as follows: 4.855 million people, of whom just over 35 per cent are Christian, 35% Shiite Muslim ^[25], 29 per cent Sunni Muslim and 5 per cent Druze. <http://www.gulfnews.com/region/Lebanon/10082387.html>

The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,874,050 in July 2006.^[24] There are approximately 16 million people of Lebanese descent spread all over the world, Brazil having the largest Lebanese community abroad.^[26] Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela, USA, West Africa, and the Dominican Republic also have large Lebanese communities. A total of 394,532 Palestinian refugees, almost entirely Sunni Moslems, have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) since 1948.^[27]

Main article: Economy of Lebanon

The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.^[28] Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.^[29] Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arab countries.^[30]

Although Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arab world,^[31] it does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce,^[32] agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Major produce include apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.^[33]

Lebanon's lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,^[32] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.^[33]

A combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%)^[32] have preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.^[33]

The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, as it leaves the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade.

The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub.^[24] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.^[34]

Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars.^[35] By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon had already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures.^[35] Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006, just weeks before the fighting started.^[35]

Beirut's airport, Rafiq Hariri International Airport, re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with $US 1.5 billion pledged),^[36] the European Union (with about $1 billion)^[37] and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.^[38]

All Lebanese schools are required by the government to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all,^[39] may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are mathematics, sciences, history, civics, geography, Arabic, and either French or English or both. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects.

The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11^th graders choice between two "concentrations": sciences, humanities , and 12^th graders choose between four concentrations: life sciences, general sciences, sociology and economics, and humanities and literature. The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade.

Students go through three academic phases:

• Elementary: Six years.
• Intermediate: Three years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completion.
• Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th grade. Students studying at French-system schools may also graduate with a French Baccalaureate that is considered equivalent to the Lebanese Baccalaureate.

These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years are, by law, compulsory.^[40] Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced.

Following secondary school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies. While the Lebanese educational system offer a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks of enough opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad.

Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.^[41][42] The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon respectively.^[43][44] The forty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in French, or English as these are the most widely used foreign languages in Lebanon.^[45]

At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II. The University academic degrees for the first stage are the Bachelor or the Licence, for the second stage are the Master or the DEA and the third stage is the doctorate.

The United Nations assigned Lebanon an Education Index of 0.84 in 2005.^[46]

Lebanon's official language is Arabic per article 11 of the Constitution. ^[47] The law allows French to be used for some official purposes, and Armenian and English are also widely spoken and understood.

The colloquial variant of Arabic used in Lebanon is one part of a grouping of dialects called Levantine Arabic, differing greatly from the literary Modern Standard Arabic, owing its historical blend to Arabic, Turkish, and the Syriac dialect of Aramaic.

Regional influences and occupations throughout the centuries could possibly explain why Lebanese people speak so many languages, even incorporating them into their own. In addition, due to the importance of the Lebanese diaspora and business interests of Lebanese worldwide, it has always been important to master languages other than Arabic.

In the Christian communities, until the Lebanese Civil War, it was seen as a mark of status to not speak Arabic.^{[citation needed]} The reason for this could possibly be that Christians generally were educated in many of the French educational institutions and so a general Francophonic class emerged in their communities. In some places French still is preferred to Arabic, and English has been making significant headway in the past two decades. However, as the Muslim population increased in previously Christian areas, Arabic in public is omnipresent, not merely commonplace.^{[citation needed]}

Main article: Culture of Lebanon

The area including modern Lebanon has been home to various civilizations and cultures for thousands of years. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's lively festivals, highly successful musical styles and literature as well as their rich cuisine, and numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When compared to the rest of the Western Asia, Lebanese society as a whole is well educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate.^[48] Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. It is often considered to serve as the European gateway to Western Asia as well as the Arab gateway to the Western World.^[49]

Main article: Lebanese Cuisine

The Lebanese Cuisine is considered to be a Mediterranean basically Levantine Arabic delicacy consisting of a variety of fresh vegetarian recipes, salads and stews all seasoned with a flavorsome combination of herbs and spices. One of the most world known Lebanese specialties is called the Maza, also written "Mezze", which is a selection of appetisers: olives, cheeses, Labanee, or small portions also known as muqabbilat (Arabic for starters).

As with most Mediterranean cuisines, Lebanese cuisine is considered to be a very balanced, healthy diet.

The cuisine of Lebanon is the epitome of the Mediterranean diet. It includes an abundance of starches, fruits, vegetables, fresh fish and seafood; animal fats are consumed sparingly. Poultry is eaten more often than red meat, and when red meat is eaten it is usually lamb. It also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil-nary a meal goes by in Lebanon that does not include these two ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked or sauted in olive oil; butter or cream is rarely used other than in a few desserts. Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled as well as cooked. While the cuisine of Lebanon doesn't boast an entire repertoire of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices and the freshness of ingredients; the assortment of dishes and combinations are almost limitless. The meals are full of robust, earthy flavors and, like most Mediterranean countries, much of what the Lebanese eat is dictated by the seasons.

Food and music overlap greatly with those of Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Turkey (all were Ottoman provinces for 400 years.)

Main article: Music of Lebanon

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Lebanese music is known around the world for its soothing rhythms and oriental beats. Traditional and folk music are extremely popular as are western rhythms.

One of the most well-known Lebanese singers is Fairuz; her songs are broadcast every morning on most radio stations and many TV channels, both in Lebanon and the Arab world in general. Other prominent artists include Julia Boutros, composer and oud player Marcel Khalife, Majida El Roumi, and Sabah.

Some Lebanese artists, such as Najwa Karam and Assi Hellani, remain loyal to a traditional type of music known as 'jabali' ("from the mountains"), while other artists incorporate Western style into their songs. Lebanese artists are perhaps the most popular in the Arab world, alongside Egyptian performers, and the star scene includes prominent figures like Najwa Karam, Nancy Ajram, Elissa (singer), Ragheb Alame, Myriam Fares, Wael Kfoury, Nawal al Zoghbi, Carole Samaha, Julia Boutros, Marwan Khouri, Waleed Tawfeek, Amal Hijazi and Majida El Roumi.

Because of Lebanon's unique geography, both summer and winter sports thrive in the country. In fact, in Autumn and spring it is sometimes possible to engage in both in one day, skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean during the afternoon.

Lebanon boasts six ski resorts, with slopes suitable for skiers and snowboarders of all ages and levels of experience. Off-slope, there are many opportunities for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling.

In the summer, skilifts can be used to access some of Lebanon's best hiking trails, with panoramic views stretching as far as Cyprus to the west and Syria to the east on clear days. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and spelunking are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. Adventure and extreme sports are also possible throughout the country.

At the competitive level, basketball, football are among Lebanon's most popular sports. In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the Asian Cup and the Pan-Arab Games; the country will host the Winter Asian Games in 2009. To meet the needs of these international competitions, Lebanon maintains state-of-the-art athletic facilities, which in turn encourage local sporting activities. Lebanon sends athletes to both the winter and summer games of the Olympics and Special Olympics.

Lebanon has a national rugby league team that is an associate member of the Rugby League European Federation and run a domestic competition comprising five clubs, who play in two seasons a year - spring and winter.

The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad. Shorter races are also held for youth and less serious competitors. Race day is promoted as a fun, family event, and it has become a tradition for many to participate in costumes or outlandish clothing.

Lebanon's contribution to the Arab Rennaissance during the middle of the 19th century is immense. This flowering allowed for the modernisation of the Arabic language moving it away from its Koranic classical dictums, and allowing for the creation and adaptation of previously unknown terms/ words as Al-Watan (the nation), Al-Watania (Nationalism).

The first theatre production in the Arab world was performed at the Al-Kahzen household in 1862, a Lebanese aristocratic family who were also representatives of France.

By the turn of the 20th century, Beirut was vying with Cairo as the major centre for modern Arab thought, with untold number of newspapers, magazines, and literary societies.

In literature, Gibran Khalil Gibran is known to be one of the world's famous writers, particularly known for his book The Prophet, which has been translated into more than twenty different languages.^[50]

Several contemporary Lebanese writers have achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf and Hanan al-Shaykh.

In art, Moustafa Farroukh and Alfred Bassbouss are very famous. Mustafa Farroukh (1901-1957) was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career. His work was applauded for its representation of real life in Lebanon in pictures of the country, its people and its customs. Farroukh became highly regarded as a Lebanese nationalist painter at a time when Lebanon was asserting its political independence. His art captured the spirit and character of the Lebanese people and he became recognized as the outstanding Lebanese painter of his generation. His total paintings were more than 2000 sold to collectors inside and outside of Lebanon. He also wrote five books and taught art at the American University of Beirut.

Several international music festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Beiteddine Festival, Byblos International Festival, and the Al-Bustan Festival. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces.

Lebanon

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Lebanon

Constitution President vacant Prime Minister interim headed by Fouad Siniora interim government Parliament Speaker Political parties Elections Governorates Districts Foreign relations

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Main article: Politics of Lebanon

Lebanon is a parliamentary, democratic republic, which implements a special system known as confessionalism.^[51] This system, allegedly meant to insure that sectarian conflict is kept at bay, attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of religious sects in the governing body.^{[52] [53]} As such, high-ranking offices in the government are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Catholic Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister an Orthodox Christian, and the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim.^[54][55]

This trend continues in the distribution of the 128 parliamentary seats, which are divided equally between Muslims and Christians. Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.^[54] According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years, although for much of Lebanon’s recent history, civil war precluded the exercise of this right.

The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term. At the urging of the Syrian government, this constitutional rule has been bypassed by ad hoc amendment twice in recent history. Elias Hrawi’s term, which was due to end in 1995, was extended for three years.^[56] This procedure, denounced by pro-democracy campaigners, was repeated in 2004 to allow Émile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007.^[57]

The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the parliament (which is, in most cases, binding).^[58] Following consultations with the parliament and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.

Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related.^[59] These military courts have been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for "seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians".^[60]

After Rafic Hariri's assassination on the 14th of February 2005, the country has seen turbulant political times, and it shaped the Cedar Revolution and the rise of the March 14 alliance which is made of : Lebanese Forces, Future Movement and the PSP.

Main article: History of Lebanon

History of the Levant
Stone Age
Kebaran · Natufian culture · Halafian culture · Jericho
Ancient History
Sumerians · Ebla · Akkadian Empire · Canaan · Phoenicians Amorites · Aramaeans · Edomites · Hittites Nabataeans ·Palmyra · Philistines ·Israel and Judah Assyrian Empire · Babylonian Empire Persian Empire · Seleucid Empire · Hasmonean kingdom Roman Empire · Byzantine Empire
The Middle Ages
Umayyad · Abbasid · Fatimid Mamluks · Ottoman Empire
Modern Times
British Mandate of Palestine Syria · Lebanon · Jordan Israel · Palestinian territories
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Main article: History of ancient Lebanon

The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world,^[61] remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.[5]

Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.^[62] After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the leading Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian, Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman.

Main article: French Mandate of Lebanon

Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as Greater Syria,^[63] until 1918 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria following World War I. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria.^[64] Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate for Syria. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.^[65] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.

After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon.

The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Christian and its prime minister be Muslim.

Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.

Main article: 1948 Arab-Israeli war

Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined its fellow Arab states and invaded Israel^[66] during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support of the Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while attempting an attack on the newly-proclaimed Jewish State.^[66] After the defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in Operation Hiram,^[67] Lebanon accepted an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949. Approximately 100,000 Palestinian refugees were living in Lebanon in 1949 as a result of the creation of Israel on the land of Israel and the subsequent war.^[68] The Lebanese-Israeli border remained closed, but quiet, until after the Six Day War in 1967.

Main article: Lebanese civil war

See also: 1982 Lebanon war

In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed.^[69] The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.^[70]

During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982^[71], the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence.^[72] The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.^[73]

Main article: Cedar Revolution

On February 14, 2005 former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion near the Saint George Bay in Beirut.^[74] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack,^[75] due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President Lahoud's term in office. Syria denied any involvement.^[75] Others, namely the Forces of March 8 and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the American CIA or the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country.^[76] The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.

The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on April 7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri.^[77] The findings of the investigation were officially published on October 20, 2005 in the Mehlis report.^[78] The report suggested the assassination was carried out by a group with considerable resources, that it had been prepared many months in advance, and that the group had detailed knowledge of Hariri’s movements.^[79]

This investigation into the Hariri assassination is ongoing and has yet to be concluded. On January 17, 2006 the UN appointed Serge Brammertz to continue the investigation;^[80] several reports of his investigation have been published albeit with no conclusive results.

The United Nations Security Council and the Lebanese cabinet have approved a Special Tribunal for Lebanon that would prosecute those responsible for Hariri's death. Under UNSCR Resolution 1757, the tribunal is now in the process of being established.^[81]

On February 28, 2005, with over 50,000 people demonstrating in Martyrs' Square, Prime Minister Omar Karami and his Cabinet resigned.^[82] In response, Hezbollah organized a large counter-demonstration attended by hundreds of thousands of people,^[83][84] which was staged on March 8 in Beirut, supporting Syria and accusing Israel and the United States of meddling in internal Lebanese affairs.

On March 14, 2005, one month after Hariri's assassination, throngs of people rallied in Martyrs' Square in Lebanon with around 1 million people.^[83][85] Protesters marched demanding the truth about Hariri's murder and independence from Syrian presence in Lebanon. The march reiterated their desire for a sovereign, democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony.

In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian areas near Beirut.^[86] Although the damage was mostly material, these acts threatened to drag Lebanon back into sectarian strife.

Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon.^[87] By April 26, 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria.^[88] On April 27, 2005, anti-Syrian Lebanese celebrated their first free-from-Syria day. UN forces led by Senegalese Brig. Gen. Mouhamadou Kandji and Lebanese Brig. Gen. Imad Anka were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by UN Security Council Resolution 1559.^[89]

During the first parliamentary elections held after Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of Sunni Muslim, Druze and Christian parties led by Saad Hariri, son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, won a majority of seats in the new Parliament.^[90] The Free Patriotic Movement (FPM), though not allied with the Rafik Hariri Martyr List during the elections, garnered strong representation in the newly elected Parliament.^[91]

The political alliances were interesting in that in some areas the anti-Syrian coalition allied with Hezbollah and in others with Amal. They did not win the two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian-appointed President Lahoud voted for by Rafik Hariri parliamentary bloc, due to the unexpectedly strong showing of formerly exiled General Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement party in Mount Lebanon. Despite being staunchly anti-Syrian during his 15-year exile, upon his return Aoun aligned himself with politicians who were friendly to the Syrians in the past decade: Soleiman Franjieh Jr and Michel Murr. Their alliance dominated the north and the Matn District of Mount Lebanon. Saad Hariri and Walid Jumblatt joined forces with the two staunchly pro-Syrian Shiite movements, Hezbollah and Amal, to secure major wins in the South, Beqaa, as well as the Baabda and Aley districts of Mount Lebanon. This alliance proved temporary. On February 6, 2006 Hezbollah signed an understanding of disarmament with Michel Aoun, the leader of the Free Patriotic Movement.

After the elections, Hariri's Future Movement party, now the country's dominant political force, nominated Fouad Siniora, a former Finance Minister, to be Prime Minister.^[92] His newly formed representative government has obtained the vote of confidence from the parliament.

On July 18, 2005, Lebanon elected a new parliament dominated by an anti-Syrian coalition. This parliament approved a motion to free Samir Geagea, leader of the Christian Lebanese Forces,^[93] who had spent most of the past eleven years in solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news.^[94] The motion was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President Émile Lahoud the next day.^[95]

Main article: 2006 Lebanon War

The 2006 Lebanon War, known in Lebanon as the July War^[96] (Arabic: حرب تموز Ḥarb Tammūz) and in Israel as the Second Lebanon War,^[97] was a 34-day military conflict in Lebanon and northern Israel. The principal parties were Hezbollah paramilitary forces and the Israeli military. The conflict started on 12 July 2006, and continued until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect on 14 August 2006, though it formally ended on 8 September 2006 when Israel lifted its naval blockade of Lebanon.

The conflict began when Hezbollah militants fired rockets at Israeli border towns as a diversion for an anti-tank missile attack on two armored Humvees patrolling the Israeli side of the border fence.^[98] Of the seven Israeli soldiers in the two jeeps, two were wounded, three were killed, and two, Eldad Regev and Ehud Goldwasser, were kidnaped and taken to Lebanon.^[98] Five more were killed in a failed Israeli rescue attempt. Israel responded with massive airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon, which damaged Lebanese civilian infrastructure, including Beirut's Rafic Hariri International Airport which Israel said Hezbollah used to import weapons, an air and naval blockade,^[99] and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon. Hezb